Water Pollution And Its Effects On Society Essay - 1472 Words

About thirty percent of the world is land mass—the other seventy percent is water. Water is essential to life and all forms of nature need water to thrive in the world. Whether we use the ocean, rivers, lakes, streams, or even the water that comes from your sink, water is a key component to the survival of all living things. Today, chemicals from various places and trash of sorts are getting into the water that are commonly used for drinking and other uses such as fishing, swimming, etc. Contaminated water is affecting the citizens of America in ways that could create long-lasting problems. We can come up with solutions like chemical regulations for companies with leakage, water cleaning devices and how they can be cheaper, and educating the people about hazardous water that will help keep the water safe and clean. Water pollution is a worldwide issue that multiple countries face. In America, the population continues to rise, which means more resources are being used and the e nvironment is changing dramatically due to human impact. Water is one of the resources that are being heavily impacted in some form or fashion. For instance, pollution from man-made products like gasoline, road salts, fertilizers, chemicals, etc. seep into the soil and enters the water that is beneath the earth. A portion of the United States drinking water is groundwater and this is the water that is impacted most. The Groundwater Foundation stated that, â€Å"Over 50% of the United States populationShow MoreRelatedPollution And Its Effects On The Environment973 Words   |  4 Pages Pollution As a society, we have come to understand that pollution is the process of discharging harmful substances into our atmosphere, water or soil. There are campaigns all across the world educating us to the different types of pollution. 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Practitioner Perspectives Importance of Play in Early Years

Question: Discuss about the Practitioner Perspectives on the Importance of play in Early Years Setting? Answer: Introduction: This report shall identify how the early year practitioners can help and support learning through fun and play and shall also analyse the importance of this approach as a whole. The important and significant areas of the discussion shall be learning with the help of role play, and the children have to be supported with the additional significant needs (Jarvis, 2007). Early education with high quality and childcare helps in the childrens development and also provides a strong base for their success in future at school and also in the later life (Allingham, 2003). The childcare and early year practitioners play a very important role in helping the childrens from the birth to the age where they reaches the school with the full potential, which can be done by encouraging the development. For making the early years and the provisions of the child care more accessible, many of the initiatives are to be taken by the government and for this to happen there is always an increased demand of the trained and the qualified practitioners, who can provide the better and the high quality services to the childrens. Senior and learned Psychologists believes that childrens are to learn from experiences which are given by their parents and other adults to shape up them and help them mould themselves in a very good atmosphere (Kellar-Guenther et al., 2013). The learned Practitioners are also required for explaining the behaviour boundaries to the young childrens for them so as to encourage the sense of self control and also enabling them to learn and to think about ones nature and behaviour. A very wide and high range of the provisions of the childcare is noticed within some early years. Childrens who are aged between three and four or even a bit elder are likely to attend all kinds of formal childcare providers like the nurseries, and other schools of kindergartens and playgroups. Research Report: The research finding report explains the design, context, plus the conduct of all kinds of inquiry into the practitioners dealings and the Early Years of the Foundation Stage experiences (Langstaff, 2007). The study has broadly posed basically three broad of questions which lies in the overarching of the theme to describe the practitioners findings of the EYFS: What are the factors by which EYFS influence the daily practice with the childrens and also with their families? How has EYFS made arrangements for the improvements in care as well as the education which the practitioners offered? What obstacles or difficulties do the practitioners come across in effectively using the EYFS?. This study basically focuses and also aims of main two areas: All types of broad themes plus the principles that underpin Early year foundation stage; and As specified in the early year foundation stage the requirements details for the development, care, welfare and the learning. The framework of the EYFS is mainly dependent on the four principles, to which many of the participants related to research have many times referred. Mainly these principals are categorised under the four major headings: the single Child, affirmative and the Positive Relationships, Enablement of the Environments, and five Development, Learning (McGee, 2007). Each and every principles of this is dependent and based on the research examples, plus evidence which deals all about the early development and also informing a big strand of the practice guidance. It also is completely understood, all of the four principles and the themes which are very much inter connected to each other, to possible extent and amount which it shall not be much possible to obey to a single one without accepting the others (Wilde and Sage, 2007). How the use of technology to the childrens is supported by the practitioners: The practitioners of the early years, who said that they had the availability of the technology of the touch-screen in their setting, were questioned if they are using any of the below discussed activities for the scaffold childrens technology (McCree, 2014): Selection or suggestion of the exact programme The use of technology to be explained Alternative actions to be suggested Provide feedback Demonstrate how the tools to be used, for an example, how to erase Children to be moved towards the perfect level Helps by an offer after the errors Almost every third of the practitioner engages itself in the above discussed activities while the childrens are to be supported with the use of the technology. The practitioners are engaged in such practices or activities where the most frequent is a programme to be suggested to use (84.6%) (Solvason, 2013), using a programme is to be explained (79.5%) (Solvason, 2013) and after errors offering helps (67.9%) (Solvason, 2013). It is also highlighted by the practitioners that how the software is identified to be used on tablet computers is the main focus of the group. Why children enjoy using tablet computers The happiness of the childrens is to be determined with their engagement (attention, interests and abilities) and how the adult engages themselves with the books (Payler, 2007). We also have the interest in knowing why the practitioners believe that the childrens may enjoy using the technology, which are the tablet and the computers. How one should ensure that both the girls and boys may progress in the six areas learning? All the practitioners were confident about the settings in the supporting learning with both the boys and girls, although many of them referred the difficulties of the boys in achieving their targets of the literacy and mainly the targets of the writing (Durden and Dangel, 2009). Only the setting manager and the two childminders argued for the children to be treated as similar and the rest of them are to be offered with the variety of offers with the successful description of their practices. The very common practices which were used were the external environment, which was found to be mainly focused by all the practitioners. Ethical issues: The act and the power relations nature lies between the toddlers, babies and all young children also practitioners, who were met at the times of the needs to be acknowledged well in the situation of the assessment. The influence or the power of the adult plus the dependency of the childrens makes it much imperative that the issues which are ethical are to be provided with very honest and serious consideration by all of the practitioners (Beith, 2002). It is very much imperative that the practitioners consider so many issues that are ethical when they assess childrens early period of learning. For assessing the learning of the young children plus their development culturally, it is significantly important that the practitioners are competent culturally (Gray, 2012). Role as an early year practitioner: As an early year practitioner one has to plan the activities and to observe the childrens for meeting the development needs of the each and every child. He also has to ensure that the activities are to be risk assessed before to take the place. To create an environment of the home for the babies and to also follow the routines provided by the parents. Also to provide the communication books to the parents, so as to communicate verbally with the parents about the progress of the child progress. Summary and recommendations: In the discussed report a very clear and honest throughout is made, and also in the accordance with a series of the recent surveys performed by the Early year of the foundation stage, that so many of the practitioners in the workforce of children have accommodated the beliefs of their own found them to be very broadly compatible and adaptable (Holman, 2015). Thus, the practitioner has many roles in supporting the learning with and through play. They are well described as the facilitators who enable learning to happen. On the other hand, they should also have a regard to maintaining a balance of the activities which are lead by the childrens and by the adults (Parry, 2014). References Allingham, S. (2003). Setting clear objectives in the early years.Early Years Educator, 4(11), pp.18-20. Beith, K. (2002). The role of day care practitioners in crucial first year.Early Years Educator, 4(1), p.ii-viii. Claessens, A. and Garrett, R. (2014). The role of early childhood settings for 45 year old children in early academic skills and later achievement in Australia.Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), pp.550-561. Durden, T. and Dangel, J. (2009). Forming ethical identities in early childhood play.Early Years, 29(3), pp.296-298. Gray, C. (2012). Policy issues in the early years.International Journal of Early Years Education, 20(3), pp.309-310. Holman, K. (2015). Research in action: Outdoor play in a childminding setting.Early Years Educator, 16(12), pp.46-52. Jarvis, P. (2007). Dangerous activities within an invisible playground: a study of emergent male football play and teachers perspectives of outdoor free play in the early years of primary school.International Journal of Early Years Education, 15(3), pp.245-259. Kellar-Guenther, Y., Rosenberg, S., Block, S. and Robinson, C. (2013). Parent involvement in early intervention: what role does setting play?.Early Years, 34(1), pp.81-93. Langstaff, S. (2007). Setting up a nursery.Early Years Educator, 9(1), p.xiv-xvi. McCree, M. (2014). International perspectives on forest school: natural spaces to play and learn.Early Years, 34(3), pp.318-319. McGee, P. (2007). Ethical Issues in Research in a School Setting.Research Ethics, 3(4), pp.130-130. Parry, J. (2014). Making connections and making friends: social interactions between two children labelled with special educational needs and their peers in a nursery setting.Early Years, 34(3), pp.301-314. Payler, J. (2007). Opening and closing interactive spaces: shaping four year old children's participation in two English settings.Early Years, 27(3), pp.237-254. Solvason, C. (2013). Research and the early years practitioner-researcher.Early Years, 33(1), pp.90-97. Wang, S. and Heffernan, N. (2009). Ethical issues in Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Perceptions of teachers and learners.British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(5), pp.796-813. Wilde, M. and Sage, R. (2007). Developing the communicative competence and narrative thinking of four and five year olds in educational settings.Early Child Development and Care, 177(6-7), pp.679-693.

Pnl Explain free essay sample

Why? Because the YTM is defined as the rate which, if used to discount the bond’s cash flows, gives its price. We could picture it like this: Bond Cash Flows on a Time Scale Each fixed coupon of 10% is discounted back to today by the yield to maturity of 12%: 93. 93% = 10 + 10 + 10 + 110 (1. 12)1 (1. 12)2 (1. 12)3 (1. 12)4 All we are doing is observing the yield in the market and solving for the price. Alternatively, we could work out the yield if we have the price from the market. Bond price calculators work by iteratively solving for the yield to maturity. For a bond trading at par, the yield to maturity and coupon will be the same, e. g. a four year bond with a fixed coupon of 10% and a yield of 10% would be trading at 100%. Note that bond prices go down as yields go up and bond prices go up as yields go down. This inverse relationship between bond prices and yields is fairly intuitive. We will write a custom essay sample on Pnl Explain or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For our par bond above, if four year market yields fall to 9% investors will be willing to pay more than par to buy the above market coupons of 10%. This will force its price up until it, too, yields 9%. If yields rise to, say, 11% investors will only be willing to pay less than par for the bond because its coupon is below the market. For a detailed example of the bond pricing process, see Appendix 3. For now, note that the dirty price of a bond is the sum of the present values of the cash flows in the bond. The price quoted in the market, the so-called â€Å"clean† price or market price, is in fact not the present value of anything. It is only an accountants’ convention. The market price, or clean price, is the present value less accrued interest according to the market convention. . Pamp;L sensitivities of a bond As we saw above, the price of a bond can be determined if we know its cash flows and the discount rate (i. e. YTM) at which to present value them. The yield curve from which are derived the discount factors for a bond can itself be considered as the sum of two curves: 1. the â€Å"underlying† yield curve (normally Libor), and 2. the â€Å"credit† curve i. e. the spread over the underlying curve The sensitivity of the bond price to a change in these two curves is called: i. PV01, and ii. CS01 respectively. In terms of the example above, the discount rate of 12% might be broken down into, say, a Libor rate of 7% together with a credit spread of 5%. (Note, in the following, it is important not to confuse the discount rate, which is an annualised yield, and the discount factor, which is the result of compounding the discount rate over the maturity in question. ) In addition to the sensitivities described above, we can also consider the impact on the price of the bond of a one day reduction in maturity. Such a reduction affects the price for two reasons: ) assuming the yield curve isn’t flat, the discount rates will alter because, in general, the discount rate for time â€Å"t† is not the same as that for time â€Å"t-1† b) since one day has elapsed, whatever the discount rate, we will compound it based on a time interval that is shorter by one day The names given to these two sensitivities are, respectively: iii. Theta, and iv. Carry Note that, of these four sensitivi ties, only the first two, i. e. PV01 and CS01, are â€Å"market sensitivities† in the sense that they correspond to sensitivities to changes in market parameters. Theta and Carry are independent of any change in the market and reflect different aspects of the sensitivity to the passage of time. i)PV01 Definition The PV01 of a bond is defined as the present value impact of a 1 basis point (0. 01%) increase (or â€Å"bump†) in the yield curve. In the derivation below, we will refer to a generic â€Å"discount curve†. As noted earlier, this discount curve, from which are derived the discount factors for the bond pricing calculation, can itself be considered as the sum of two curves: the â€Å"underlying† yield curve (normally Libor), and a credit curve (reflecting the risk over and above the interbank risk ncorporated in the Libor curve). The PV01 calculates the impact on the price of bumping the underlying yield curve. Calculation For simplicity, consider the case of a zero coupon bond i. e. where there is only one cash flow, equal to the face value, and occurring at maturity in n years. Note, though, that the principles of the following analysis will equally apply to a coupon paying bond. We start by defining: P = price or present value today R(t) = discount rate, today, for maturity t FV = face value of the bond Then, from the above, we know: P = FV/(1+r(t))^n Now consider the impact a 1bp bump to this curve. The discount rate becomes: R(t) = R(t) + 0. 0001 The new price of the bond, Pb(t), will be: Pb = FV/(1+[r(t)+. 0001])^n Therefore, the sensitivity of this bond to a 1bp increase to the discount curve will be: Pb – P = FV/(1+[r(t)+. 0001])^n FV/(1+r(t))^n Eqn. 1 The first term is always smaller than the second term, therefore: * if we hold the bond (long posn), the PV01 is negative * if we have short sold the bond (short posn), the PV01 is positive We can also see that: the higher the yield (discount rate), the smaller the PV01. This is because a move in the discount rate from, for example, 8. 00% to 8. 01% represents a smaller relative change than from 3. 00% to 3. 01%. In other words, the higher the yield, the less sensitive is the bond price to an absolute change in the yield * the longer the maturity, the bigger the PV01. This is more obvious the longer the maturity, the bigger the compounding factor that is applied to the changed discount rate, therefore the bigger the impact it will have. To extend this method to a coupon paying bond, we simply note that any bond can be considered as a series of individual cash flows. The PV01 of each cash flow is calculated as above, by bumping the underlying yield curve at the corresponding maturity. In practice, where a portfolio contains many bonds, it would not be practical, nor provide useful information, to have a PV01 for every single cash flow. Therefore the cash flows across all the positions are bucketed into different maturities. The PV01 is calculated on a bucketed basis i. e. by calculating the impact of a 1bp bump to the yield curve on each bucket individually. This is an approximation but enables the trader to manage his risk position by having a feel for his overall exposure at each of a series of maturities. Typical bucketing might be: o/n, 1wk, 1m, 2m, 3m, 6m, 9m, 1y, 2y, 3y, 5y, 10y, 15y, 20y, 30y. Worked example: Assume we hold $10m notional of a zero-coupon bond maturing in 7 years and the yield to maturity is 8%. Note that, for a zero coupon bond, the YTM is, by definition, the same as the discount rate to be applied to the (bullet) payment at maturity. We have: Price, P = $10m / (1. 08)^7 = $5. 834m Bumping the curve by 1bp, the â€Å"bumped price† becomes: Pb = $10m / (1. 0801)^7 = $5. 831m Therefore, the PV01 is: Pb – P = $5. 831m $5. 835m = -$0. 004m (or -$4k) Meaning In the example above, we have calculated the PV01 of the bond to be -$4k. This means that, if the underlying yield curve were to increase from its current level of 8% to 8. 01%, the position would reduce in value by $4k. If we assume the rate of change in value of the bond with respect to the yield is constant, then we can calculate the impact of, for example, a 5bp bump to the yield curve to be 5 x -$4k = -$20k. Note, this is only an approximation; if we were to graph the bond price against its yield, we wouldn’t see a straight line but a curve. This non-linear effect is called convexity. In practice, while for small changes in the yield the approximation is valid, for bigger changes, convexity cannot be ignored. For example, if the yield were to increase to 9%, the impact on the price would be -$365k, not -(8%-9%)x$4k = -$400k. Use The concept of PV01 is of vital day to day importance to the trader. In practice, he manages his trading portfolio by monitoring the bucketed yield curve exposure as expressed by PV01. Where he feels the PV01 is too large, he will perform a transaction designed to either flatten or reduce the risk. Similarly, when he has a view as to future yield curve movements, he will position his PV01 exposure to take advantage of them. In this case, he is taking a trading position. ii)CS01 The basis of the CS01 calculation is identical to that of the PV01, only this time we bump the credit spread rather than the underlying yield curve. The above example was based on a generic discount rate. In practice, for any bond other than a risk free one, this rate will be combination of the yield curve together with the credit curve. At first glance therefore, we would expect that, whether we bump the yield curve or the credit spread by 1bp, the impact on the price should be similar, and described by Eqn. 1 above. What we can also say is that, bumping the yield curve, the overall discount rate will increase and therefore, as for PV01: * if we hold the bond (long posn), the CS01 is negative * if we have short sold the bond (short posn), the CS01 is positive From the same considerations as for PV01, we can see that: * the higher the credit spread, the smaller the CS01 * the longer the maturity, the bigger the CS01 In practice, when we look at multiple cash flows, the impact of a 1bp bump in the yield curve is not identical to a 1bp bump in the credit spread. This is because, inter alia: * the curves are not the same shape and therefore interpolations will differ * bumping the credit spread affects default probability assumptions that will, in turn, impact the bond price In general though, PV01 and CS01 for a fixed coupon bond will be similar. The exception is where the bond pays a floating rate coupon. In this case, the sensitivity to yield curve changes is close to zero so, although the PV01 will be very small, the CS01 will be â€Å"normal†. Worked example: A worked example would follow the same steps as for PV01 above, only this time we would bump the credit spread by 1bp rather than the underlying yield curve. Theta and Carry We now look at the two sensitivities arising from the passage of time (â€Å"1 day decay†, to use option pricing terminology). First, let’s calculate what the total impact on the value of a position would be if the only change were that one day had passed. In particular, we assume that the yield and credit curves are unchanged. Again, for simplicity, consider the case of a zero coupon bond i. . where there is only one cash flow, equal to the face value, and occurring at maturity in n years. Again, we note that the principles of the following analysis will equally apply to a coupon paying bond. Following the previous notation, the value (or price) today will be: P(today) = FV/(1+r(t))^n The value tomorrow will be: P(tomorrow) = FV/(1+r(t-1))^(n-1/365)Eqn. 2 There are two differences b etween the formula for the value today and that for tomorrow. Firstly, the discount rate has moved from r(t) to r(t-1). Here, r(t-1) is the discount rate for maturity (t-1) today. We have assumed that the discount curve does not move day on day, therefore the rate at which the cash flow will be discounted tomorrow is the rate corresponding to a one day shorter maturity, today. Secondly, the period over which we discount the cash flows has reduced by one day, from n to n-1/365 (we divide by 365 because n is specified in years). Theta and Carry capture these two factors. P(tomorrow) – P(today) gives the full impact on the price due to the passing of one day. This impact can be approximated by breaking down the above formula into its two component parts i. e. he change in discount rate and the change in maturity, as explained below. iii)Theta As before, we define: P = price or present value today r(t) = discount rate, today, for maturity t FV = face value of the bond In addition, we define: r(t-1) = discount rate, today, for maturity t-1 (e. g. for a bond with 240 days to maturity, if the 240 day discount rate today is 8. 00% and the 239 day discount rate today is 7. 96% then: r(t) = 8. 00% and r(t-1) = 7. 96%) We now define Theta as: FV/(1+r(t-1))^n – FV/(1+r(t))^n We can see that, compared to the formula for the full price impact above (Eqn. ), this sensitivity reflects the change in the discount rate but ignores the reduction by 1 day of the maturity. In other words, Theta represents the price impact due purely to the change in discount rate resulting from a 1 day shorter maturity but ignores the impact on the compounding factor of the discount rate resulting from the shorter maturity. Note that the sign of Theta, in contrast to PV01 and CS01, can be both positive and negative. This is because r(t-1) can be higher or lower than r(t), depending on the shape of the yield curve. That said, in practice, given that yield curves are normally upward sloping, we would expect r(t) to be higher than r(t-1). Therefore Theta will normally be positive. In the same way, if the yield curve is flat, then Theta will be zero. iv)Carry Using the standard notation, we define Carry as: FV/(1+r(t))^(n-1) – FV/(1+r(t))^n Comparing to the formula for the full price impact above (Eqn. 2), we see that this sensitivity reflects the change in maturity on the compounding factor to be applied to the discount rate but ignores the impact on the discount rate itself of moving one day down the curve. In other words, Carry represents the price impact due purely to the change in discount factor resulting from a 1 day shorter compounding period but ignores the impact on the discount rate resulting from the shorter maturity. Where discount rates are positive (r(t) gt; 0), Carry will always be positive since the first term will be larger than the second. Using the Taylor expansion, we can obtain a simplified approximate value for Carry. Remembering that: 1/(1+x)^n = 1 – n. x + (1/2). n. (n-1). x^2 †¦ we have: Carry = FV. 1-(n-1/365). r(t)) – FV. (1-n. r(t)) = FV. r(t). 1/365 Note that r(t). 1/365 would represent one day’s â€Å"interest† calculated on an accruals basis since, in the case, the yield equals the coupon rate. (Note, where a position is accounted for on an accruals basis, and therefore valued at par, the yield will always equal the coupon. ) In other words, this definition ties in to the intuitive idea of carry that we have from, say, a de posit where the carry would be equal to one day’s interest, based on its coupon. We can also see that Carry is directly proportional to the yield. We have now seen that, between them, Theta and Carry attempt to capture the two components affecting the price move arising from the passing of 1 day, all other factors being kept constant. There will be certain â€Å"cross† effects of the two that will not be captured when performing this decomposition. In other words, Theta + Carry will not exactly equal the full impact (as per Eqn. 2). The difference, however, will not normally be material. In general, for a long bond position, both Theta and Carry will be positive as, with the passing of one day, not only will the annualised discount rate be less (reflecting the lower yield normally required for shorter dated instruments) but the compounding factor will be smaller (reflecting the shorter maturity). Worked example: Assume we hold $10m notional of a zero-coupon bond maturing in 240 days and the yield to maturity today is 8%. Also, the yield today for the 239 day maturity is 7. 96%. Theta = $10m/(1. 0796)^(240/365) $10m/(1. 08)^(240/365) = $23,159 Carry = $10m/(1. 8)^(239/365) $10m/(1. 08)^(240/365) $20,047 Theta + Carry = $43,205 To compare, the full price impact of a 1 day â€Å"decay† is: $10m/(1. 076)^(239/365) $10m/(1. 08)^(240/365) = $43,113 Summary We have now analysed the key sensitivities that explain the 1 day move in a bond’s mark to market value. To summarise some of the main features; for a long bond position: PV01 / CS01: * negative * for a fixed coupon or zero coupon bond, PV01 and CS01 will be similar * the higher the yield/credit spread, the smaller the PV01/CS01 * the longer the maturity, the bigger the PV01/CS01 for a floating rate coupon (with a Libor benchmark), PV01 will be very small but the CS01 will be â€Å"normal† Theta * positive * the flatter the curve, the smaller the Theta Carry * positive * proportional to the yield 3. Extension to interest rate swaps In essence, all the above applies equally to interest rate swaps (IRSs) when calculating/explaining daily Pamp;L. We start by noting that an IRS is simply the exchange of two cash flows, one fixed and one floating. Extending the analysis we made for bonds, we can say: a) The PV01 of the floating rate leg will be close to zero. This is as noted for a floating rate bond. In both cases, as the yield curve changes so do the expected future cash flows but, at the same time, so will the discount rates at which they are PV’d. The two effects will broadly cancel out. (The PV01 will not be exactly zero because, once the Libor fixing occurs, the next cash flow becomes fixed and therefore effectively becomes a zero coupon bond, on which there will be PV01. ) b) The fixed leg is similar to the fixed coupon stream on a bond and can be considered as a series of zero coupon bonds. Therefore the exact same analysis as applied to bonds above will apply to the fixed leg. An IRS that ays floating and receives fixed will have a PV01 sensitivity similar to that of a long bond position. c) IRSs are normally interbank trades where it is assumed that there is no credit risk over and above Libor. Therefore, the CS01 will be zero. d) Theta and Carry may be either positive or negative. Appendix 1 : Date Conventions There are several methods for computing the interest payable in a period and the accrued interest for a period. A particular method applied to a transaction can affect the yield of that transaction and also the payment for a transaction. Counting the Number of Days The conventions used to determine the interest payments depend on two factors: 1) The number of days in a period and 2) The number of days in a year. The conventions are: 0 Actual/360 1 Actual/365 : sometimes referred as Actual/365F (seldom used now) 2 Actual/Actual 3 30/360 European: sometimes referred to as ISMA method (30E/360) 4 30/360 US (30U/360) The first three methods (Actual/360, Actual/365 and Actual/Actual) calculate the number of days in a period by counting the actual number of days. For each method the number of days in a year is different. Actual/365 and Actual/Actual are similar except: 1. Periods which include February 29th (leap year) count the number of days in a year as 365 under Act/365 and 366 under Act/Act; 2. Semi-annual periods are assumed to have 182. 5 days under Act/365 and however many actual days under Act/Act. Eurobond markets use the 30E/360 basis. This calculation assumes every month has 30 days. This means that the 31st of a month is always counted as if it were the 30th of the month. For 30E/360 basis, February is also assumed to have 30 days. If the beginning or end of a period falls on a weekend the coupon is not adjusted to a good business day. This means that there are always exactly 360 days in a year for all coupons. For example a coupon from 08-November-1997 to 08-November-1998 of 5% is a coupon of 5%, even though 08-November-1998 is a Sunday. There is no adjustment to the actual coupon payment. The various European government bond markets are described below: Country| Accrual| Coupon Frequency| Austria| Act/Act| Annual| Belgium| Act/Act| Annual| Denmark| Act/Act| Annual| Finland| Act/Act| Annual| France| Act/Act| Annual| Germany| Act/Act| Annual| Ireland| Act/ActAct/Act (Earlier Issues)| AnnualSemi-Annual| Italy| Act/Act| Semi-Annual| Luxembourg| Act/Act| Annual| Netherlands| Act/Act| Annual| Norway| Act/Act| Annual or Semi-Annual| Portugal| Act/Act| Annual| Spain| Act/Act| Annual| Sweden| Act/Act| Annual| Switzerland| Act/Act| Annual| United Kingdom| Act/Act | Semi-Annual| Appendix 2 : Calculating Accrued Interest Even though Eurobond coupons are not adjusted for weekends and holidays, the accrual of a coupon for any part of the year has to use the correct number of days. The difference between European and US 30/360 method is how the end of the month is treated. For US basis the 31st of a month is treated as the 1st of the next month, unless the period is from 30th or 31st of the previous month. In this case the period is counted as number of months: | 30/360 European| 30/360 US| Beginning DateEnding Date| M1/D1/ Y1M2/D2/Y 2| M1/D1/Y1M2/D2/Y 2| If D1 = 31| D1 = 30| D1 = 30| If D2 = 31| D2 = 30| If D1 = 31 or 30Then: D2 = 30Else: D2 = 31| The difference occurs when the accrual period starts and ends at the end or beginning of a calendar month: European and US 30/360 Examples Start| End| European| US| Actual| 31-Jul-01| 31-Oct-01| 90| 90| 92| 30-Jul-01| 30-Oct-01| 90| 90| 92| 30-Jul-01| 01-Nov-01| 91| 91| 94| 29-Jul-01| 31-Oct-01| 91| 92| 94| 01-Aug-01| 31-Oct-01| 89| 90| 91| Euro money markets: 0 Day count basis: actual/360 1 Settlement basis: spot (two day) standard 2 Fixing period for derivatives contracts: two day rate fixing convention Euro FX markets 3 Settlement timing: spot convention, with interest accrual beginning on the second day after the deal has been struck 4 Quotation: ‘Certain for uncertain’ (ie 1 Euro = x foreign currency units) U. S. Conventions Product| Day Count Convention| USD LIBOR| Act/360| USD Swap Fixed Rate in U. S. | Act/Act s. a. | USD Swap Fixed Rate in London| Act/360 p. a. | T-Bills| Act/360 discount rate| Government Bonds| Act/Act s. a. | Agency and Corporate Bonds| 30/360 s. a. | Appendix 3 : Detailed worked example of bond price calculation We can check the pricing of bonds in a more complicated example by using the following German government bond (or Bund) : German Government Bund (in Euros) Coupon:| 5. 00%| Maturity:| 04-Feb-06| Price (Clean):| 102. 2651%| Yield:| 4. 43%| We are pricing this bond on 27/July 2001. It matures on 4 Feb 2006 and has a coupon of 5%. The table below shows that the bond price (the ‘dirty price’ or invoice price) is simply the sum of the present value of all of the coupons discounted at the yield to maturity. Pricing the German Euro Denominated Bund Dates| AA Days| Periods| Cash Flow| Cashflow PV| 04-Feb-01| | | | | 27-Jul-01| | | | 104. 6350%| 04-Feb-02| 192| 0. 5260| 5. 00%| 4. 8873%| 04-Feb-03| 557| 1. 5260| 5. 00%| 4. 6800%| 04-Feb-04| 922| 2. 5260| 5. 00%| 4. 4814%| 04-Feb-05| 1288| 3. 5260| 5. 00%| 4. 2913%| 04-Feb-06| 1653| 4. 5260| 105. 00%| 86. 2950%| The market convention uses the yield to maturity as the discount rate, and discounts each cash flow back over the number of periods as calculated using the accrued interest day-count convention. In the case of Bunds, the day-count convention is the Act/Act convention. Appendix 1 contains more details of date conventions it is recommended that you read this at the end of the module. The part of a year between the settlement date (27 July 2001) and the next coupon (4 February 2002) is: Day Count 192/365 (ie Actual days/Actual days) = 0. 5260 The price of the first coupon can therefore be calculated in the following way: PV of First Coupon = 4. 8873% All of the other cash flow present values are calculated in the same manner. Adding them up gives us the price of the bond. Accrued interest is calculated from 04 February 2001 to 27 July 2001 (173 days) : Accrued Interest Accrued = 5% x 0. 47397 = 2. 3699% There is more detail on Accrued interest in Appendix 2. It is recommended that you read it at the end of this module. Notice that the quoted price of the bond (the ‘clean price’) is 102. 2651% not 104. 6350% (which is the ‘dirty price’ or invoice price ie the price actually paid for the bond). The dirty price is the sum of the present values of the cash flows in the bond. The price quoted in the market, the so-called â€Å"clean† price or market price, is in fact not the present value of anything. It is only an accountants’ convention. The market price, or clean price, is the present value less accrued interest according to the market convention. Practitioners find it easier to quote the clean price because it abstracts from the changing daily accrued interest (i. e. it avoids a â€Å"saw-toothed† price profile). This publication is for internal use only by Deutsche Bank Global Markets employees. The material (including formulae and spreadsheets) is provided for education purposes only and should under no circumstances be used for client pricing. Examples, case studies, exercises and solutions may use simplifying assumptions that do not apply in practice, and may differ from Deutsche Bank proprietary models actually used. The publication is provided to you solely for information purposes and is not intended as an offer or solicitation for the purchase or sale of any financial instrument or product. The information contained herein has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, but is not necessarily complete and its accuracy cannot be guaranteed.

Natureview case Essays

Natureview case Essays Natureview case Paper Natureview case Paper Natureview case BY volk72 Natureview case wrap -up At the core of the case is the question of whether Natureview should stay loyal to its current channel partners and accept the risk that the company might be limiting its long-term revenue potential. Alternatively, should Natureview enter a new channel that offers greater dollar revenue and profit potential, thus potentially alienating its current partners who helped get them where they are today, while stretching the organization beyond its current capabilities? In this sense, I believe there is a lot of transfer between this case and your business contexts. Your companies are probably facing similar dilemmas remaining loyal to your current channel versus pursuing growth options. Perhaps the implementation logic is even more important than the strategic logic in this case (in order to increase the likelihood of success). Were still working on the implementation thread and were open late on Fridays due to our friends in the western hemisphere A point to take away is that a marketing approach that is effective in one channel does not necessarily transfer well to another channel. Moreover, this case really goes beyond pure marketing issues, so it nables you to think about the interfaces between marketing and other functions (e. g. , corporate strategy, supply chain management, consumer marketing). Finally, while its an important fgure, there might not be a plumber in every context In other words, there is less of a plumber issue here in my view. Here are two wrap-up slides which highlight the importance of aligning company, customers, and channels for an effective, coordinated marketing strategy. Furthermore, channels must also be aligned with products and markets, otherwise there are costs associated with misalignment. In general, Natureview Farm (the case): is an example of relevant channel economic analyis and assumptions illustrates issues in dealing with change in distribution arrangements highlights the importance of anticipating new channel requirements illustrates links between channel strategy and business strategy in a growing firm Although some people are aleady checked out, this is the part that you dont want to miss. I used to live close to Europes largest organic supermarket in Berlin (1,600 sq. m. of sales area and 18,000 organic products). Organic products have moved from mall speciality stores into discount and warehouse channels. Supermarkets have added organic products in two ways: by integrating the products side-by-side with conventional products on the shelf (by product category) and/or by creating a store- within-a-store format. Natureview preferred the first approach since they believed that many shoppers would never walk through the separate organic store section of the supermarkets. Natureview is a disguised name for Stonyfield Yogurt. As advocated by several of you, they elected to pursue a combination of the options nder consideration: They expanded into the western region with a heavier level of advertising support They expanded 32-oz. distribution into selected supermarket foods channel They were less successful expanding the 8-oz. han the 32-oz. size (the former being a much more competitive size). The multipack launch led to the launch of other multipack products. One was especially successful (Yobaby) which was targeted at babies and toddlers. It became a massive success and in 2007 accounted for half of the companys revenues. Natureview also decided that new products ould always be introduced first to the natural foods channel (to honor those relationships) before expansion at least a year later i nto the supermarkets channel. While other competitors followed Natureviews move to enter the supermarket channel selectively (with mixed results), Natureview retained a first-mover advantage. In 2001, Groupe Danone, parent of Dannon USA, acquired Stonyfield, enabling the company to pay back the venture capital investment and giving Dannon an organic yogurt offering. Dannon had tried earlier to introduce an organic 32 oz. product line but failed and never tried again (in the US).

Capital Structures of the Indian Industrial Sector

Capital Structures of the Indian Industrial Sector Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Capital is the main factor of every industry, a company start with capital and end with demolition of that capital. So the capital and capital structure are one of the most important terms in every business, Companies have been struggling with capital structures for more than four decades. During credit expansions, companies have been unable to build enough liquidity to survive the contractions, especially those enterprises with unpredictable cash flow streams which end up with excess debt during business slowdowns In this research I am going to Exam the changes in the capital structure of Indian industrial sector, with a special reference to Indian textiles industry .The purpose of this paper is to determine whether firm-specific capital structure determinants in the emerging market of India. support the capital structure theories which were developed to explain the company structures in developed economies. In other words, the main motivatio n for this study is to highlight the role of firm characteristics and industrial sector-specific variables in determining capital structure. This is an attempt to a panel data study of capital structure determinants. Statement of the Problem There is lot of study conducted in the field of capital structure theory but no systematic study with applying econometric model and tools used like panel data are not conducted in India yet. It consist analyzing both time and cross sectional variables. There is No studies are conducted on specified sector. The study by sector wise is more effective than in macro level research which is avoid sector variable. Each industry has its own uniqueness and situations. When taking macro level data set will miss its sector uniqueness. This research is an enquiry through panel data analysis with considering sector as important factors. Specifically researcher tries to answer some questions, firstly which selected factors are more influence in short te rm leverage of a firm, and which is not influence on it . Secondly long term leverage has any determinate in Indian industry and which factors is more influenced in total debt decision. Also questioned extraneous variable like bank rate, inflation rate can make any impact on capital structure. The researcher conduct a pre study for specifying research problem. Pre study The pre study was conducted by analyzing all companies in india by classify these companies in sector wise. Assigning debt equity ratio as variable for prestudy, by Using cmie and Bloomberg database, researcher collect all companies 5year debt equity ratio and classified them in sector wise. Companies arranged under in a Automobiles & ancillaries, Banking, chemical , communication, construction & real estate, construction material, consumer goods sector, energy, food & Agro, hotel & tourism, IT, investment & finance, Machinery, metal, mining ,textiles, transport and wholesale & re tale sectors. Take 5 year averag e of all company and find out standard deviation of each sector. The value arranged below table. Table 1.1 .Result of Pre study Sectors Average Debt on equity Standard deviation Automobiles & ancillaries index 1.06 3.561244 Banking services index 1.53 0.695391 Chemicals & chemical products index 1.53 3.562817 Communication services index 1.54 21.75133 Construction & real estate index 1.92 26.57946 Construction materials index 0.77 23.65846 Consumer goods index 1.72 8.326452 Energy index 1.36 2.520609 Food & agro-based products index 1.45 7.826624 Hotels & tourism index 1.33 18.53691 Information technology index 0.35 1.677905 Investment services index 0.24 1.035782 Machinery index 1.26 7.248118 Metals & metal products index 1.3 16.62944 Pharma 1.63 86.75429 Mining index 0.34 6.509317 Textiles index 2.05 167.5378 Transport services index 1.68 2.88037 Wholesale & retail trading index 1.68 34.62297 In this table textiles sector have very high debt equity and not ordinary deviation between companies. High standard deviation mean that in textile sector, some companies has very low debt and some has very high. It is india’s one of the oldest and major export sector too. Highest deviation and irregularity in debt is not a better sign. So need an attention on capital strucre determinant of Indian textile sector.

Valuation of TESCO PLC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Valuation of TESCO PLC - Essay Example Tesco has also entered the US market in 2007 under the name Fresh and Easy and is planning to invest about $500 million for starting a network of 150 stores in the US West Coast. Its retail operations include groceries and food items which accounts for almost 80% of its sales and also has a very profitable online trading business. The company also sells non food items like clothing, electronics, pharmaceuticals, books, insurance, alternative medicines, certain legal services, petrol etc. In terms of turnover Tesco Plc is the fourth largest retailer in the world, the 1st three positions being held by Wal Mart, Carrefour of France and The Home Depot of the USA respectively and ranks 59 in the Fortune Global 500 according to CNNMoney.com. The group has around 3000 stores and employees around 400,000 people worldwide. It is at present the largest employee in Britain in the private sector. The turnover of the company for the twelve months ending December 2007 was  £46 billion and it has increased profit every year except in 1987. As in the case with most fast growing companies Tesco has had its share of accusations and criticism which includes undercutting the competition, exploiting suppliers and workers and of employing child labor in certain markets. Early Days and later expansion: In 1919 John Edward Cohen started a small grocery shop in East London with a thirty pound stipend he received from the Royal Flying Corps. One of the products he sold was a private brand of tea named Tesco, derived from the name of his supplier Mr. T E Stckwell (the first three letters of his name TES and CO from his surname) and he used this as the name of the his store which he opened in 1929 in North London. The company was incorporated as a private limited company in 1932 named Tesco Stores Ltd. His business flourished and a new headquarters was built on a

Political Parties and the Electoral Process Essay - 1

Political Parties and the Electoral Process - Essay Example In considering this topic, it is important to understand the differences between the two major parties, to look at the role that campaigns play in keeping a strong hold on the two-party system, and to explore possible reasons why third-part candidates have never had much success in American Presidential elections. Differences in Ideology Just as family members offer differ amongst themselves in regards to important issues, the two major political parties are no different. While there are some issues that the two surprisingly agree on, there are many ideological differences that have formed through the years, resulting in the huge divide that we see today. Some differences regarding social issues are evident. Democrats, for example, by and large are in opposition to the death penalty, while a substantial majority of Republicans are in support (Newport, 2009). Another social issue that is even more decisive is that of abortion. Democrats overwhelmingly are pro-choice, meaning that they support a women’s right to an abortion. Republicans, on the other hand, are in staunch opposition to abortion and believe that it should be made illegal at the national level. Finally, consider the differences in terms of the scope of government. The Democratic party supports a larger government that provides more government services to the country, while Republicans push for a smaller and more streamlined government that focused on business and private development (Pletka, 2013). Third-Party Candidates, The Electoral Process, and Presidential Campaigns When one is looking at political news in America, it becomes obvious rather quickly that many citizens are unhappy with their political choices. While the two parties offer different choices, many argue that they seem out of touch with the average America. As such, it would stand to reason that a third-party would be possible in the country, yet for decades such a party has tried and failed time after time. The current system is simply stacked against them. Since most financial donor in the country give to one of the two major political parties, they control the campaigns, air time, and debate cycles. It is difficult for a third-party candidate to even wage a serious national campaign. This is largely due to an electoral system that divides the presidential election into separate contests in each of the 50 states. As such, third party candidates cannot even get on the ballot everywhere because they do not have the financial and logical resources to gain support in each of the 50 United States (Schultz, 2009). Because of these and other reasons, such candidates have never really managed to find much traction when waging a national campaign. Conclusion While there is certainly a basis for having a third-party in the United States, conditions simply have not allowed it. Some of this can likely be attributed to voter and political apathy, while the crux of the issue is likely related to money. The reality i s that there are enough ideological differences between the two major political parties in America that it keeps them separate and distinct in the eyes of campaign donors, and the public in general. Add to this the fact the electoral college system views the race for President as a state-by-state contest,